Page 1 RADIATION DETECTION REFERENCE HANDBOOK Bladewerx SabreBPM Alpha + Beta Air Monitor...
Page 2 Bladewerx provides instrumentation and software engineering products and services to the radiation protection and measurement industry. Specializing in portable alpha-in-air instrumentation and client software applications, the company has a reputation of providing cutting edge technology in both algorithm development and attractive but practical software user-interface design.
Page 3 The Bladewerx SabreBZM Breathing Zone Monitor is a lightweight, battery- powered, alpha air monitor that can be worn on the body, and its sampling head clipped to the lapel. The proximity of the sampling head to the wearer’s mouth means more accurate worker “breathing zone”...
Page 4 The Bladewerx ™ is a SabreAlert lightweight, battery- powered, alpha air monitor that can be used as a portable workplace monitor or a portable CAM for emergency-response assessments. Using Bladewerx’ acclaimed peak-fitting software for radon-background subtraction means more accurate workplace measurement and alarm indications.
Page 5 The Bladewerx SabreASC Alpha Sample Counter is a field-deployable alpha sample counter that provides high-sensitivity Pu239 activity determinations on 2-inch planchettes, filters or swipes with real time compensation for radon-daughter background. Samples no longer need to be stored for several days for radon daughters to decay before being able to assess the activity of isotopes of interest, and SabreASC is easily calibrated to other alpha-emitting...
Page 6 The Bladewerx SabreBPM™ is a lightweight, battery- powered, beta air monitor that can be used as a portable workplace monitor or a fixed CAM. Using Bladewerx’ acclaimed alpha peak-fitting software for radon- background subtraction means more accurate workplace measurement and alarm indications.
Page 7 Shieldwerx provides state-of-the-art neutron and gamma shielding products, custom design and fabrication of shielding materials, and neutron activation foils, to the nuclear power and nuclear medicine industries, and accelerator research facilities. Our staff has more than 40 years experience in designing and producing shielding products, and are responsive to every request.
Page 8: Table Of Contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS 1.6TBqEN 6CEN 10CFR20 Appendix A Respirator Protection Factors 10CFR835 Appendix D 29CFR1910.134 Respirator Protection Factors Abbreviations Actinium Decay Chain Activity vs Exposure Rate Activity vs Particle Size Acute Radiation Effects Air Flow Meter Corrections Air Monitoring Air Pollution Safe Limits Air Sample Collection &...
Page 9 Combining Radiation Types to Determine Total Dose Comparative Risk of Radiation Exposure Composition of Air Composition of the Human Body Constants Conversions of Units Counting Gases vs Signal Levels Counting Statistics DAC Factors and ALIs from 10CFR20 & 10CFR835 76 DOE 5400.5 Table 1 Dose Equivalent Calculations Dose Equivalent Limits &...
Page 10 Exposure Rate from a Disc Source Exposure Rate from a Line Source Exposure Rate from a Point Source Exposure Rate in an Air-Filled Ion Chamber Filter Media Gas Law Units ICRP 23 Reference Man Internal Dosimetry Instrument Selection and Use Interference Due to Environmental Radon International Airport Elevations Inverse Square Law (Rule)
Page 11 Radiation Biology Radiation Interactions Radiation Weighting Factors Radioactive Decay Modes Radon Facts Relative Risk Rules of Thumb for Alpha Particles Rules of Thumb for Beta Particles Rules of Thumb for Gamma Radiation Rules of Thumb for Neutron Radiation Shallow Dose Correction Factor Shielding SI &...
Page 12: Emergency Response
RADIOLOGICAL EMERGENCY RESPONSE Write in Your Emergency Phone Numbers Supervisor: Team Office: Group Office: Division Office: Emergency Response Team: Fire Department: Hospital: Guidelines for Control of Emergency Exposures (EPA-400) Use a dose limit of: 5 rem (50 mSv) for all emergency procedures 10 rem (100 mSv) only for protecting major property 25 rem (250 mSv)
Page 13 EMERGENCY RESPONSE SWIMS for Radiological and Other Emergencies Only under extreme radiological conditions such as external radiation greater than 100 rem / hr or airborne radioactivity concentrations greater than 100,000 DAC would the radiological emergency take precedence over serious personnel injuries. Hazardous conditions such as atmospheres that are IDLH would require you to implement controls to protect the emergency responders.
Page 14 HAZARD CONTROL PRIORITIES DURING MEDICAL EMERGENCIES Immediate treatment by trained medical personnel should be sought for any serious injuries such as those involving profuse bleeding or broken bones. The order of priority should be to protect lives, protect property, and then to control the spread of contamination.
Page 15 Major Injuries Occurring in Hazardous Areas Protect yourself - consider the magnitude of any radiation field, airborne contamination, or other hazard. Stay with the victim unless doing so puts you at immediate risk to life or health. Don’t move the victim unless there is a danger from some environmental emergency such as fire, explosion, hazardous material spill, or radiation field.
Page 16: Acute Radiation Effects
ACUTE RADIATION EFFECTS 0 – 25 REM minimal decrease in white blood cell count for ~ 2weeks increase in risk of dying from cancer from US average risk of ~ 14 persons per 100 population to ~ 17 persons per 100 population (3 additional persons per 100 population will experience the onset of terminal cancer ~25 years after the acute exposure)
Page 17 600 REM - < 800 REM all of the above symptoms will be present 100% of those exposed require hospitalization ~ 100% of those exposed will die within a few weeks without medical treatment increase in risk of dying from cancer to ~ 98 in 100 800 REM - <...
Page 18: Table Of The Elements
TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS Density Density 89 Actinium Ac 10.07 64 Gadolinium Gd 7.90 13 Aluminum 2.6989 31 Gallium Ga 5.9 95 Americium Am 13.67 32 Germanium Ge 5.32 51 Antimony Sb 6.618 79 Gold Au 19.32 18 Argon Ar 0.0018 72 Hafnium Hf 13.31 33 Arsenic...
Page 19 Density Density 76 Osmium Os 22.57 14 Silicon Si 2.33 Oxygen O 0.00143 47 Silver Ag 10.5 46 Palladium Pd 12.02 11 Sodium Na 0.97 15 Phosphorus P 2.2 38 Strontium Sr 2.54 78 Platinum Pt 21.45 16 Sulfur 94 Plutonium Pu 19.84 73 Tantalum Ta 16.6...
Page 20 Relative Locations of Products of Nuclear Processes He in Original Nucleus p out neutron p proton d deuteron He out t triton (H ) alpha beta positron electron capture Use this chart along with the Table of the Elements to determine the progeny (and ancestor) of an isotope.
Page 21 Radioactive Decay Calculation -ët -ët A = A e A = A / e t = ln(A / A ) / -ë half-life = -t x 0.693 / ln(A /A ) Where; A is the activity at the end of time ‘t’ A is the activity at the beginning ë...
Page 22 CHARACTERISTIC RADIATIONS OF COMMONLY ENCOUNTERED RADIONUCLIDES These tables show the type of radiation, its energy in keV, its half-life, the half-life of its first progeny, and the % abundance of that energy for the parent. Only the most abundant energies are listed. Radiation Progeny type...
Page 23 1174 ((81.81) â 7.17E5 130 (2.5), 1809 (99.96), 2938 (0.24) ã Mg x-rays 1 (0.44) 1710 (100) â 14.29d 87.2d 710 (99.0) â 3.01E5y 1312 (89.33) â 1.27E9y 1461 (10.67) ã Ar x-rays 3 (0.94) 1198 (99.17), 2492 (0.78) â 1.827h 1294 (99.16) ã...
Page 24 482 (10.01), 657 (89.99) â 43.7h 984 (100), 1037 (97.5), 1312 (100) ã 697 (50.1) â 16.238d 944 (7.76), 984 (100), 1312 (97.5) ã Ti x-rays 0.45 (0.15), 5 (9.74) 27.704d 320 (9.83) ã V x-rays 1 (0.33), 5 (22.31) 575 (29.4) â...
Page 25 463 (0.87), 716 (5.7), 843 (33.1) â 35.60h 270.9d 127 (12.9), 1378 (77.9), 1919(14.7) ã Co x-rays 1 (0.29), 7 (18.1), 8 (2.46) 270.9d 14 (9.54), 122 (85.51), 136 (10.6) ã Fe x-rays 1 (0.8), 6 (49.4), 7 (6.62) 475 (14.93) â...
Page 26 270.9d 67.7m Ga x-rays 1 (0.67), 9 (38.7), 10 (5.46) 822 (0.012), 1899 (0.8794) â 67.7m 1077 (0.032), 1883 (0.0014) ã Zn x-rays 9 (0.049), 10 (0.00579 1353 (34.0) â 17.77d 634 (15.4) ã 1540 (66.0) â 596 (59.9), 608 (0.55), 1204 (0.287) ã...
Page 27 471 (100) â 20.3E4y 703 (100), 871 (100) ã 366 (55.4), 399 (43.7), 887 (0.78) â 63.98d 34.991d 724 (43.7), 757 (55.3) ã 160 (99.97) â 34.991d 766 (100) ã decays 88.6% to Tc & 11.4% to Tc 66.0h 436 (17.3), 848 (1.36), 1214 (82.7) â...
Page 28 194 (100) â 1.57E7y 40 (7.52) ã Xe x-rays 4 (12), 29 (29.7), 30 (55), 34 (19.6) 364 (81.2), 503 (0.36), 637 (7.26) â 8.025d 643 (0.22), 723 (1.80) 284 (6.05), 364 (81.2), 637 (7.26) ã Xe x-rays 4 (0.6), 29 (1.3), 30 (2.5), 34 (0.9) 370 (1.24), 460 (3.75), 520 (3.13), â...
Page 29 300 (1.08), 340 (0.91), 350 (1.39), â 6.583h 9.139h 460 (4.73), 480 (7.33), 620 (1.57), 670 (1.10), 740 (7.9), 920 (8.7), 1030 (21.8), 1150 (7.9), 1250 (7.4), 1450 (23.6), 1580 (1.2), 2180 (1.9) 1132 (22.5), 1260 (28.6), 1678 (9.5) ã Xe x-rays 30 (0.127) 551 (3.13), 751 (0.59), 909 (96.1) â...
Page 30 â 256 (5.65), 536 (41.4), 672 (48.3) 73.83d ã 296 (29.02), 308 (29.68), 317 (82.85), 468 (48.1), 589 (4.57), 604 (8.20), 612 (5.34) Pt x-rays 9 (4.1), 65 (2.6), 67 (4.5), 76 (1.97) EC (4.69%) Os x-rays 9 (1.46), 61 (1.1), 63 (1.96), 71 (0.8) 204m 763 (97.42) â...
Page 31 5614 (0.2), 5722 (31.8), 5770 (68.1) á 2.851y 4.47E9y av. 61 (0.08) ã U x-rays 14 (13) 5270 (32), 5320 (68) á 68.9y 1.41E10y ã 58 (0.21), 129 (0.082), 270 (0.0038), 328 (0.0034) Th x-rays 13 (39), 90 (0.21), 93 (3.5),105 (1.6) 4856 (22.4), 4901 (78) á...
Page 32 126 (100) â 320d 350.6d 5760 (3.66), 5814 (84.4), 5946 (4) á 350.6y 8.5E3y 253 (2.7), 333 (15.5), 388 (66) ã Cm x-rays 15(30), 105 (2.19), 109 (3.5), 123 (1.66) 5304 (5), 5362 (93.18), 5488 (0.83) á 350.6y 24,125y 133 (6.3), 174 (6.4) ã...
Page 33: Thorium-232 Decay Chain
Thorium-232 Decay Chain including thoron 1 Progeny kev and % abundance á 3830 (0.2), 3953 (23), 4010 (77) 1.41E10y ã 59 (0.19), 125 (0.04) Ra x-rays 12 (8.4) â 39 (100) 5.75y â 606 (8), 1168 (32), 1741 (12) 6.13h ã...
Page 34 Progeny kev and % abundance á 6779 (99.998) 0.15s â 158 (5.22), 334 (85.1), 573 (9.9) 10.64h ã 115 (0.6), 239 (44.6), 300 (3.4) Bi x-rays 11 (15.5), 75 (10.7), 77 (18), 87 (8) decays 64.07 % of the time by â to Po and 35.93 % of the time by á...
Page 35 Uranium-238 Decay (including Radon progeny) 1 Progeny kev and % abundance á 4039 (0.2), 4147 (23.4), 4196 (77.4) 4.47E9y ã av. 66 (0.1) Th x-rays 13 (8.8) 234m â 76 (2), 96 (25.3), 189 (72.5) 24.1d ã 63 (3.8), 92 (2.7), 93 (2.7) Pa x-rays 13 (9.6) 234m decays 99.87 % of the time by â...
Page 36 Progeny kev and % abundance is “radon” gas á 5490 (99.92), 4986 (0.08) 3.82d ã av. 512 (0.08) decays 99.98 % of the time by á to Pb & 0.02 % of the time by â to At á 6003 (99.98) 3.05m â...
Page 37 Progeny kev and % abundance á 7687 (99.989), 6892 (0.01) 164 ìs ã 797 (0.013 â 1320 (25), 1870 (56), 2340 (19) 1.30m ã 298 (79), 800 (99), 1310 (21) Pb x-rays 11 (13), 73 (2.5), 75 (4.3), 85 (1.9) â...
Page 38: Neptunium Decay Chain
Neptunium Decay Chain (4n + 1) 1 Progeny kev and % abundance decays ~100 % of the time by â to Am & 0.0023 % of the time by á to U â 21 (~100.0) 14.4y á 4850 (0.0003), 4900 (0.0019) á...
Page 39 Progeny kev and % abundance â 320 (100.0) 14.8d ã 40 (31) Ac x-rays 13 (16) â 21 (~100.0) 10.0d ã 63 (0.6), 100 (3), 150 (1) Fr x-rays 12 (21), 85 (3), 98 (0.8) á 6126 (15), 6242 (1.4), 6340 (83.4) 4.8m ã...
Page 40: Actinium Decay Chain
Actinium Decay Chain (4n + 3) 1 Progeny kev and % abundance á 4370 (18), 4400 (57), 4580 (8) 7.08E8y ã 143 (11), 185 (54), 204 (5) â 140 (45), 220 (15), 305 (40) 25.55h ã 26 (2), 84 (10) á...
Page 41 Progeny kev and % abundance á 6420 (8), 6550 (11), 6820 (81) 3.96s ã 272 (9), 401 (5) decays ~100 % of the time by á to Pb & 0.00023 % of the time by â to At á 7380 (~100) 1.778ms â...
Page 42 Ci / g = 3.578E5 / (T in years x atom ic m ass) GBq / g = 1.324E7 / (T in years x atom ic m ass) Rem /hr / Ci Sv/hr / GBq Half-Life Ci/g @ 30 cm GBq/g @ 30cm 21.77y 72.40 2.68E3...
Page 43 Rem /hr / Ci Sv/hr / GBq Half-Life Ci/g @ 30 cm GBq/g @ 30cm 10.6m 1.25E8 1.01 4.63E9 2.73E-4 53.28d 3.50E5 0.38 1.30E7 1.03E-4 1.51E6y 0.024 0.875 5.01d 1.24E5 4.59E6 210m 3.04E6y 5.61E-4 2.124 0.0207 5.75E-4 2.14m 4.17E8 0.273 1.54E10 7.39E-5 60.6m 1.47E7...
Page 44 Rem /hr / Ci Sv/hr / GBq Half-Life Ci/g @ 30 cm GBq/g @ 30cm 162.8d 3.31E3 1.22E5 29.1y 50.59 0.675 1.87E3 1.83E-4 18.1y 81.0 3.00E3 8500y 0.17 0.325 6.36 8.80E-5 1.56E7y 9.28E-5 1.87 3.43E-3 5.06E-4 77.3d 3.02E4 21.36 1.12E6 5.77E-3 271.8d 8.43E3...
Page 45 Rem /hr / Ci Sv/hr / GBq Half-Life Ci/g @ 30 cm GBq/g @ 30cm 15.19d 5.51E4 2.04E6 3.52E-4 1.830h 9.52E7 7.72 3.52E9 2.09E-3 2.73y 2.38E3 8.81E4 44.51d 4.97E4 7.34 1.84E6 1.98E-3 1.50E6y 3.98E-3 0.147 157.6m 4.66E6 1.72E8 20.0m s 2.58E12 N/A 9.53E13 N/A 4.9m...
Page 46 Rem /hr / Ci Sv/hr / GBq Half-Life Ci/g @ 30 cm GBq/g @ 30cm 8.040d 1.24E5 3.14 4.59E6 8.49E-4 2.295h 1.04E7 5.17 3.83E8 1.40E-3 20.8h 1.13E6 4.54 4.18E7 1.23E-3 52.6m 2.67E7 17.47 9.88E8 4.72E-3 6.57h 3.53E6 9.57 1.31E8 2.59E-3 2.8047d 4.20E5 3.717...
Page 47 Rem /hr / Ci Sv/hr / GBq Half-Life Ci/g @ 30 cm GBq/g @ 30cm 9.965m 1.45E9 6.814 5.37E10 1.84E-3 7.13s 9.89E10 16.57 3.66E12 4.48E-3 2.605y 6.24E3 14.85 2.31E5 4.01E-3 14.96h 8.73E6 20.55 3.23E8 5.55E-3 2.03E5y 0.19 10.20 6.94 2.76E-3 34.975d 3.93E4 4.74...
Page 48 Rem /hr / Ci Sv/hr / GBq Half-Life Ci/g @ 30 cm GBq/g @ 30cm 36.1m 2.47E7 0.248 9.14E8 6.71E-5 10.64h 1.39E6 0.732 5.14E7 1.98E-4 3.25E7 1.155 1.20E9 3.12E-4 6.50E6y 5.15E-4 0.0191 2.6234y 928.3 3.15E-5 3.43E4 8.53E-9 53.08h 3.97E5 0.0532 1.47E7 1.44E-5 4.12m 7.31E5...
Page 49 Rem /hr / Ci Sv/hr / GBq Half-Life Ci/g @ 30 cm GBq/g @ 30cm 4.576h 8.47E6 3.628 3.13E8 9.82E-4 1.273m 1.80E9 7.452 6.67E10 2.02E-3 86.2d 1.83E4 3.135 6.76E5 8.49E-4 4.75E10y 8.67E-8 3.21E-6 17.7m 1.21E8 3.58 4.48E9 9.68E-4 15.4m 1.37E8 12.17 5.07E9 3.29E-3...
Page 50 Rem /hr / Ci Sv/hr / GBq Half-Life Ci/g @ 30 cm GBq/g @ 30cm 3.349d 8.30E5 0.56 3.07E7 1.51E-4 43.7h 1.49E6 5.51E7 5.68E-3 119.78d 1.45E4 9.53 5.37E5 2.58E-3 6.50E5y 6.98E-3 0.258 132y 84.77 3.14E3 1.031E8y 2.38E-5 8.80E-4 1.06E11y 2.30E-8 8.50E-7 7.00E15y 3.46E-13 N/A 1.28E-11 N/A...
Page 51 Rem /hr / Ci Sv/hr / GBq Half-Life Ci/g @ 30 cm GBq/g @ 30cm 131m 7.98E5 2.18 2.95E7 5.90E-4 3.204d 3.09E5 2.124 1.14E7 5.75E-4 12.5m 1.13E8 2.32 4.19E9 6.28E-4 133m 55.4m 2.55E7 3.11 9.45E8 8.42E-4 41.8m 3.36E7 1.77 1.24E9 4.79E-4 4.40E9 0.195...
Page 52 Rem /hr / Ci Sv/hr / GBq Half-Life Ci/g @ 30 cm GBq/g @ 30cm 6.75d 8.16E4 0.561 3.02E6 1.52E-4 4.47E9y 3.36E-7 1.24E-5 15.98d 1.70E5 15.6 6.29E6 4.22E-3 330d 8.09E3 2.99E5 23.72d 7.07E5 2.82 2.62E7 7.63E-4 131m 11.84d 8.69E4 0.5664 3.22E6 1.53E-4 5.243d 1.87E5...
Page 53 Gamma exposure at 30 cm vs Particle Size in microns for commonly encountered radionuclides mRem/hr mSv/hr 1ì 10ì 100ì 1ì 10ì 100ì 1.3E-4 1.3E-1 1.3E2 1.3E-6 1.3E-3 4.7E-5 4.7E-2 4.7E1 4.7E-7 4.7E-4 0.47 9.5E-2 9.5E1 9.5E4 9.5E-4 0.95 9.5E2 4.5E-10 4.5E-7 4.5E-4 4.5E-12 4.5E-9 4.5E-7...
Page 54 mRem/hr mSv/hr 1ì 10ì 100ì 1ì 10ì 100ì 1.1E-3 1.1E3 1.1E-5 1.1E-2 3.9E-4 3.9E-1 3.9E2 3.9E-6 3.9E-3 7.1E-4 7.1E-1 7.1E2 7.1E-6 7.1E-3 8E-3 8E-5 8E-2 3.5E-10 3.5E-7 3.5E-4 3.5E-12 3.5E-9 3.5E-6 5.4E-11 5.4E-8 5.4E-5 5.4E-13 5.4E-10 5.4E-7 8.1E-14 8.1E-11 8.1E-8 8.1E-16 8.1E-13 8.1E- 3.9E-11 3.9E-8 3.9E-5...
Page 55: Activity Vs Particle Size
Activity in DPM vs Particle Size in microns for oxide form of various isotopes 0.5ì 1ì 5ì 10ì 50ì 8.7E-3 0.07 69.7 8700 3.0E-6 2.4E-5 3E-3 0.02 4.7E-7 3.8E-6 5E-4 3.8E-3 0.47 1.0E-3 8.0E-3 1000 2.5E4 2.5E7 0.09 0.73 9.1E4 0.33 2670 3.3E5...
Page 56: Composition Of The Human Body
RADIATION BIOLOGY Maximum survivable dose: 1000 rem (10 Sv) Cancer mortality rate 900 excess deaths per 100,000 persons at 0.1 Sv (10 rem) Radiation Dose Risk Report Additional Cancer Deaths BEIR III 1980 3 in 10,000 per 1 rem (10 mSv) (also Reg Guide 8.29) BEIR V 1990 800 in 100,000 per 10 rad (0.1 Gy)
Page 57: Dose Equivalent Calculations
DOSIMETRY 1 Bq = 1 dps = 2.7 E-11 Ci 1 Gy = 1 joule / kg = 100 rads H (Sv) D(Gy) x Q (Sv / Gy) Quality Factors (Q) values: x-rays, beta, gamma neutrons: thermal fast alpha DOSE EQUIVALENT CALCULATIONS 1 Roentgen = 2.58E-4C / kg or 1 esu / cm = 87 ergs / g...
Page 58: Internal Dosimetry
INTERNAL DOSIMETRY Calculating CDE and CEDE ICRP 26/30 = I / nALI x 50 rem (0.5 Sv) nALI is the non- stochastic ALI = 50 yr committed dose equivalent to irradiated tissue = Intake nALI = non-stochastic ALI = 50 rem (0.5 Sv)/ h = greatest dose equivalent found in the exposure-to-dose conversion tables CEDE = I / sALI x 5 rem (50 mSv) sALI is the stochastic ALI...
Page 59 INTERNAL DOSIMETRY Effective Half-Life t = t x t / (t + t ) where; t = radioactive half-life t = biological half-life Effective Removal Constant ë = ë + ë where; ë = decay constant = 0.693 / t ½...
Page 60: Equivalent Dose, Effective Dose And Committed Effective Dose
EQUIVALENT DOSE, EFFECTIVE DOSE, and COMMITTED EFFECTIVE DOSE ICRP 60 Equivalent Dose = equivalent dose in tissue T = radiation weighting factor = absorbed dose averaged over tissue T due to radiation R ICRP 60 Effective Dose = effective dose to the individual = tissue weighting factor = equivalent dose in tissue(s) T ICRP 60 Committed Effective Dose...
Page 61: Radiation Weighting Factors
RADIATION WEIGHTING FACTORS (ICRP 60) Type and Energy Range Radiation Weighting Factor, W Photons, all energies Electrons and muons, all energies Neutrons, <10 keV 10 keV to 100 keV 100 keV to 2 MeV 2 MeV to 20 MeV > 20 MeV Protons, other than recoil protons, energy >...
Page 62: Calculating Tode And Tede
CALCULATING TODE AND TEDE TEDE + CEDE TODE + CDE TEDE total effective dose equivalent TODE total organ dose equivalent deep dose equivalent 50 year committed dose equivalent to a tissue or organ CEDE 50 year committed effective dose equivalent DOSE EQUIVALENT LIMITS &...
Page 63: Radiation Interactions
RADIATION INTERACTIONS Charged Particles Ionization, Excitation, Bremsstrahlung (â ), Annihilation (â ) Neutrons Scattering (E > 0.025 eV) Elastic (energy and momentum are conserved) Inelastic (photon emitted) Absorption (E < 0.025 eV) Radiative Capture (n, ã) Particle Emission (n, á) (n, p) (n, n) Fission (n, f) Gamma or X-ray photons Photoelectric Effect (generally <...
Page 64: Shielding
SHIELDING MATERIALS á low Z, such as plastic or aluminum â high Z, such as tungsten ã mixed low Z, then high Z â ã neutron hydrogenous material to thermalize (such as polyethylene) then neutron absorber (such as Cd, B, Li, Hf), then high Z to absorb "capture gammas" Photon Half-Value Layers in CM 0.10 0.60...
Page 65: Stay Time Calculation
Photon Shielding Buildup Factors Water Aluminum Concrete Iron Lead 2.52 2.37 2.19 1.98 1.24 2.13 2.02 1.94 1.87 1.37 1.83 1.75 1.75 1.76 1.39 Neutron and Gamma Shielding SIMPLIFIED SHIELD THICKNESS CALCULATION perform radiation measurements to verify these calculations shielded exposure rate unshielded exposure rate number of shielding layers (tenth or half) x 0.1...
Page 66: Beta Dose Rates
Beta Dose Rates in rad/hr per mCi 1 cm 10 cm 30 cm 60 cm 90 cm 1.0 m 0.15 1,200 0.25 1,000 0.30 0.50 0.05 0.01 0.75 0.05 0.01 1.25 0.04 0.02 1.50 0.04 0.02 1.75 0.04 0.02 2.00 0.04 0.02 2.25...
Page 67: Positron Emitters
Positron Emitters Beta+ Energy and % Abundance Half-life MeV (%) C-11 20.3 m 0.960 (99.8%) N-13 9.97 m 1.199 (99.8%) O-15 122 s 1.732 (99.9%) F-18 1.83 h 0.634 (96.7%) Na-22 2.605 y 0.546 (89.8%) Al-26 7.3E5 y 3.210 (100%) V-48 15.98 d 0.697 (50.1%)
Page 68: Determine Total Dose
Combining Radiation Types to Determine Total Dose An individual radionuclide may have several different types of emissions. Those different types of emissions and the short- lived progeny of the individual radionuclide must be considered when determining a total dose. Particulate radiation should be treated as a “shallow” dose while photons and neutrons should be treated as a “deep”...
Page 69: Shallow Dose Correction Factor
Shallow Dose Correction Factor In accordance with 10CFR20 and 10CFR835 deep dose equivalent shall be used for posting of radiation areas. Shallow dose equivalent shall be reported separate from deep dose equivalent. Deep dose equivalent is the sum of the gamma and neutron deep dose equivalents.
Page 70 NEUTRON SHIELD THICKNESS - Nx = I e where; = final neutron flux rate = initial neutron flux rate = shield cross section in square centim eters N = num ber of atom s per cm in the shield = shield thickness in centim eters exam ple: A dosim etry phantom is designed to sim ulate the com position of the hum an body.
Page 71 Neutron Half-Value Layers in centimeters Energy in MeV Polyethylene W ater 10.1 Concrete Dam p soil 14.3 18.2 20.8 exam ple: How m any half-value layers of polyethylene are needed to attenuate a 100 m Rem /hr 5 MeV neutron source to 5 m Rem /hr? How thick does the polyehylene need to be? = I x 0.5 = 5 m Rem /hr...
Page 72: Exposure Rate In An Air-Filled Ion Chamber
Exposure Rate in an Air-Filled Ion Chamber I / m[1 / (2.58E-4 C / kg)-R] exposure rate (R / sec) current (amperes) mass of air in chamber (kg) % Resolution of a Gamma Spec System = FWHM / peak energy x 100 = % resolution FWHM = peak energy width at full width half-max height peak energy = photopeak energy of interest...
Page 73 Photon Fluence Rate ö from a Point Source AY / 4ðr = photon fluence rate (ã / cm -hr) ö source activity (decay per hr) photon yield (ã / decay) distance from point source (cm) Exposure Rate (X) from a Point Source X (R/hr) = ÃA / r specific gamma ray constant (R/hr @ 1 meter per Ci)
Page 74 Inverse Square Ruel X (D ) = X (D ) = Measured exposure rate = Distance from source for the measured exposure rate = Exposure rate to be calculated = New distance from the source Applying the Inverse Square Rule to Dose Reduction Given: A high activity source at an unknown distance.
Page 75: Tbqen
6CEN and 1.6TBqEN 6CEN equation can be used to calculate the exposure rate in R/hr at one foot for x-ray and gam m a radiation point sources with energies between 60 KeV and 2 MeV. R/hr at 1 foot 6CEN where;...
Page 76 1.6TBqEN The sam e form ula in Sv/h at 30 cm is given by 1.6TBqEN, where TBq is the num ber of terabecquels. Sv/hr at 30 cm =1.6TBqEN where; = quantity of radioactive m aterial photon energy in MeV abundance of that photon expressed as a decim al exam ple: A 3 TBq Co-60 source which has gam m a...
Page 77 A comparison of signal levels for various counting gases Counting Gas ù Factor Gas Density eV / ion pair (g / L) 33.8 1.2928 26.4 41.3 0.183 36.5 0.09 34.8 1.25 30.8 1.43 27.3 0.717 36.2 21.5 Ne + 0.5 % Ar 25.3 0.909 Ar + 0.5 % C H...
Page 78 Table 1 of DOE 5400.5 Surface Activity Guidelines Radionuclides Max Removable Group 1: Transuranics, Group 2: Th-natural, Sr, 1,000 3,000 Group 3: U-natural, 5,000 15,000 1,000 and associated decay products, alpha emitters Group 4: Beta/gamma emiters 5,000 15,000 1,000 Tritium 10,000 radionuclides with decay modes other than alpha emission or spontaneous fission except Sr and others noted above...
Page 79: Instrument Selection And Use
INSTRUMENT SELECTION AND USE Exposure/Absorbed Dose Rates (photon) - Ion Chamber, Energy Compensated GM, Tissue-Equivalent Plastic Dose Equivalent Rates (neutron) - BF or He moderator, Neutron-Proton Recoil (Rossi Detector, Liquid Plastic Scintillator, Plastic/ZnS Scintillator) , LiGdBO -loaded Plastic Beta and activity - Proportional Counter, GM, Plastic Scintillator Alpha activity - Proportional Counter, ZnS Scintillator, Air Proportional, Solid-state Silicon, Plastic Scintillator...
Page 80 29CFR1910.134 TABLE 1—ASSIGNED PROTECTION FACTORS (5) Type of Quarter Half Full face- Helmet/ Loose- respirator mask mask piece hood fitting (1, 2) facepiece 1. Air-Purifying Respirator (3) 10 ....2. Powered Air-Purifying Respirator (PAPR) ..1,000 25/1,000 3. Supplied-Air Respirator (SAR) or Airline Respirator Demand mode ..
Page 81 Notes: (1) Employers may select respirators assigned for use in higher workplace concentrations of a hazardous substance for use at lower concentrations of that substance, or when required respirator use is independent of concentration. (2) The assigned protection factors in Table 1 are only effective when the employer implements a continuing, effective respirator program as required by this section (29CFR 1910.134), including training, fit testing,...
Page 82 10CFR20 “STANDARDS FOR PROTECTION AGAINST RADIATION” and 10CFR835 “OCCUPATIONAL RADIATION PROTECTION” use the following definitions for ALI and DAC. 10CFR20 Specifies Respiratory Protection Factors while 10CFR835 uses those Respiratory Protection Factors specified by 29CFR1910 “OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH STANDARDS”. Annual limit on intake (ALI) means the derived limit for the amount of radioactive material taken into the body of an adult worker by inhalation or ingestion in a year.
Page 83 10CFR20 Appendix A Assigned Protection Factors for Respirators (a) I. Air Purifying Respirators [Particulate (b) only] (c): Filtering facepiece disposable (d) Negative Pressure..(d) Facepiece, half (e) Negative Pressure Facepiece, full Negative Pressure Facepiece, half Powered air-purifying 50 Facepiece, full Powered air-purifying 1000 Helmet/hood Powered air-purifying 1000...
Page 84 (a) These assigned protection factors apply only in a respiratory protection program that meets the requirements of this Part. They are applicable only to airborne radiological hazards and may not be appropriate to circumstances when chemical or other respiratory hazards exist instead of, or in addition to, radioactive hazards.
Page 85 respiratory protection program requirements listed in Sec. 20.1703 apply. An assigned protection factor has not been assigned for these devices. However, an APF equal to 10 may be used if the licensee can demonstrate a fit factor of at least 100 by use of a validated or evaluated, qualitative or quantitative fit test.
Page 86 (h) The licensee should implement institutional controls to assure that these devices are not used in areas immediately dangerous to life or health (IDLH). (i) This type of respirator may be used as an emergency device in unknown concentrations for protection against inhalation hazards.
Page 87 10CFR20 DAC 10CFR835 DAC 10CFR20 ALIs uCi uCi/mL uCi/mL Bq/M Ingestion Inhalation 2E-05 7E+5 2E-01 9E+9 2E-05 8E+4 8E+4 STCs 2E-06 8E+4 STCs 1E-05 5E+5 Be-7 8E-06 1E-05 4E+5 4E+4 2E+4 Be-10 6E-09 2E-08 1E+3 1E+3 2E+2 6, 38 C-11 1E-04 6E+6 C-11...
Page 88 10CFR20 DAC 10CFR835 DAC 10CFR20 ALIs uCi uCi/mL uCi/mL Bq/M Ingestion Inhalation K-42 2E-06 2E-06 1E+5 5E+3 5E+3 K-43 4E-06 9E-07 3E+4 6E+3 9E+3 K-44 3E-05 8E-06 2E+5 2E+4 7E+4 K-45 5E-05 9E-06 3E+5 3E+4 1E+5 Ca-41 2E-06 2E-06 8E+4 3E+3 4E+3 Ca-45...
Page 89 10CFR20 DAC 10CFR835 DAC 10CFR20 ALIs uCi uCi/mL uCi/mL Bq/M Ingestion Inhalation Fe-59 1E-07 1E-07 6E+3 8E+2 3E+2 Fe-60 3E-09 1E-09 Co-55 1E-06 5E-07 2E+4 1E+3 3E+3 Co-56 8E-08 1E-07 4E+3 4E+2 2E+2 Co-57 3E-07 9E-07 3E+4 4E+3 7E+2 Co-58m 3E-05 3E-05 1E+6...
Page 90 10CFR20 DAC 10CFR835 DAC 10CFR20 ALIs uCi uCi/mL uCi/mL Bq/M Ingestion Inhalation Cu-61 1E-05 3E-06 1E+5 1E+4 3E+4 Cu-64 9E-06 3E-06 1E+5 1E+4 2E+4 Cu-67 2E-06 2E-06 3E+4 5E+3 5E+3 Zn-62 1E-06 9E-07 3E+4 1E+3 3E+3 Zn-63 3E-05 8E-07 2E+5 2E+4 7E+4 Zn-65...
Page 91 10CFR20 DAC 10CFR835 DAC 10CFR20 ALIs uCi uCi/mL uCi/mL Bq/M Ingestion Inhalation As-74 3E-07 3E-07 1E+4 1E+3 8E+2 As-76 6E-07 6E-07 2E+4 1E+3 1E+3 As-77 2E-06 1E-06 4E+4 4E+3 5E+3 As-78 9E-06 3E-06 1E+5 8E+3 2E+4 Se-70 2E-05 2E-06 9E+4 1E+4 4E+4 Se-73m...
Page 92 10CFR20 DAC 10CFR835 DAC 10CFR20 ALIs uCi uCi/mL uCi/mL Bq/M Ingestion Inhalation Rb-88 3E-05 1E-05 5E+5 2E+4 6E+4 Rb-89 6E-05 1E-05 3E+5 4E+4 1E+5 Sr-80 5E-06 2E-06 9E+4 4E+3 1E+4 Sr-81 3E-05 5E-06 2E+5 2E+4 8E+4 Sr-82 4E-08 7E-08 2E+3 2E+2 Sr-83 1E-06...
Page 93 10CFR20 DAC 10CFR835 DAC 10CFR20 ALIs uCi uCi/mL uCi/mL Bq/M Ingestion Inhalation Zr-97 5E-07 4E-07 1E+4 6E+2 1E+3 Nb-88 9E-05 5E-06 1E+5 5E+4 2E+5 Nb-89m 2E-05 3E-06 1E+5 1E+4 4E+4 Nb-89 6E-06 2E-06 1E+5 5E+3 2E+4 Nb-90 1E-06 3E-07 1E+4 1E+3 2E+3 Nb-93m...
Page 94 10CFR20 DAC 10CFR835 DAC 10CFR20 ALIs uCi uCi/mL uCi/mL Bq/M Ingestion Inhalation Tc-101 1E-04 1E-05 4E+5 9E+4 3E+5 Tc-104 3E-05 7E-06 2E+5 2E+4 7E+4 Ru-94 2E-05 5E-06 1E+5 2E+4 4E+4 Ru-97 5E-06 2E-06 8E+4 8E+3 1E+4 Ru-103 3E-07 2E-07 9E+3 2E+3 6E+2 Ru-105...
Page 95 10CFR20 DAC 10CFR835 DAC 10CFR20 ALIs uCi uCi/mL uCi/mL Bq/M Ingestion Inhalation Ag-108m 1E-08 2E-08 1E+3 6E+2 Ag-110m 4E-08 7E-08 2E+3 5E+2 Ag-111 4E-07 3E-07 1E+4 9E+2 9E+2 Ag-112 3E-06 2E-06 8E+4 3E+3 8E+3 Ag-115 3E-05 8E-06 3E+5 3E+4 8E+4 Cd-104 3E-05 4E-06...
Page 96 10CFR20 DAC 10CFR835 DAC 10CFR20 ALIs uCi uCi/mL uCi/mL Bq/M Ingestion Inhalation Sn-117m 5E-07 2E-07 9E+3 2E+3 1E+3 Sn-119m 4E-07 3E-07 1E+4 3E+3 1E+3 Sn-121m 2E-07 1E-07 6E+3 3E+3 5E+2 Sn-121 5E-06 2E-06 7E+4 6E+3 1E+4 Sn-123m 5E-05 7E-06 2E+5 5E+4 1E+5 Sn-123...
Page 97 10CFR20 DAC 10CFR835 DAC 10CFR20 ALIs uCi uCi/mL uCi/mL Bq/M Ingestion Inhalation Te-116 9E-06 2E-06 7E+4 8E+3 2E+4 Te-116 6E-06 1E+3 Te-121m 8E-08 1E-07 4E+3 5E+2 2E+2 Te-121m 4E-08 1E+3 Te-121 1E-06 1E-06 4E+4 3E+3 3E+3 Te-121 1E-06 3E+4 Te-123m 9E-08 1E-07 4E+3 6E+2...
Page 98 10CFR20 DAC 10CFR835 DAC 10CFR20 ALIs uCi uCi/mL uCi/mL Bq/M Ingestion Inhalation Te-134 6E-06 2E+5 Te-134 1E-05 2E-06 1E+5 2E+4 2E+4 I-120m 9E-06 2E-06 1E+5 1E+4 2E+4 I-120m 3E-06 5E+4 I-120m 4E-06 8E+4 I-120 4E-06 2E-06 6E+4 4E+3 9E+3 I-120 1E-06 5E+4 I-120...
Page 99 10CFR20 DAC 10CFR835 DAC 10CFR20 ALIs uCi uCi/mL uCi/mL Bq/M Ingestion Inhalation I-130 1E-07 6E+3 I-130 2E-07 7E+3 I-131 2E-08 2E-08 9E+2 I-131 1E-08 5E+2 I-131 1E-08 6E+2 I-132m 4E-06 3E-06 1E+5 4E+3 8E+3 I-132m 1E-06 6E+4 I-132m 1E-06 7E+4 I-132 3E-06 2E-06...
Page 100 10CFR20 DAC 10CFR835 DAC 10CFR20 ALIs uCi uCi/mL uCi/mL Bq/M Ingestion Inhalation Cs-136 3E-07 2E-07 1E+4 4E+2 7E+2 Cs-137 6E-08 8E-08 3E+3 1E+2 2E+2 Cs-138 2E-05 5E-06 2E+5 2E+4 6E+4 Ba-126 6E-06 4E-06 1E+5 6E+3 2E+4 Ba-128 7E-07 4E-07 1E+4 5E+2 2E+3 Ba-131m 6E-04...
Page 101 10CFR20 DAC 10CFR835 DAC 10CFR20 ALIs uCi uCi/mL uCi/mL Bq/M Ingestion Inhalation Ce-144 6E-09 1E-08 7E+2 2E+2 Pr-136 9E-05 1E-05 3E+5 5E+4 2E+5 Pr-137 6E-05 9E-06 3E+5 1E+5 Pr-138m 2E-05 2E-06 7E+4 1E+4 4E+4 Pr-139 5E-05 1E-05 2E+5 4E+4 1E+5 Pr-142m 6E-05 5E-05 2E+6...
Page 102 10CFR20 DAC 10CFR835 DAC 10CFR20 ALIs uCi uCi/mL uCi/mL Bq/M Ingestion Inhalation Sm-141m 4E-05 5E-06 2E+5 3E+4 1E+5 Sm-141 8E-05 1E-05 4E+5 5E+4 2E+5 Sm-142 1E-05 4E-06 1E+5 8E+3 3E+4 Sm-145 2E-07 4E-07 1E+4 6E+3 5E+2 Sm-146 1E-11 2E-11 4E-2 Sm-147 2E-11 2E-11...
Page 103 10CFR20 DAC 10CFR835 DAC 10CFR20 ALIs uCi uCi/mL uCi/mL Bq/M Ingestion Inhalation Gd-152 4E-12 7E-12 1E-2 Gd-153 6E-08 9E-08 3E+3 5E+3 1E+2 Gd-159 2E-06 1E-06 5E+4 3E+3 6E+3 Tb-147 1E-05 2E-06 1E+5 9E+3 3E+4 Tb-149 3E-07 1E-07 6E+3 5E+3 7E+2 Tb-150 9E-06 2E-06...
Page 104 10CFR20 DAC 10CFR835 DAC 10CFR20 ALIs uCi uCi/mL uCi/mL Bq/M Ingestion Inhalation Ho-166m 3E-09 7E-09 2E+2 6E+2 Ho-166 7E-07 6E-07 2E+4 9E+2 2E+3 Ho-167 2E-05 4E-06 1E+5 2E+4 6E+4 Er-161 3E-05 3E-06 1E+5 2E+4 6E+4 Er-165 8E-05 2E-05 1E+6 6E+4 2E+5 Er-169 1E-06...
Page 105 10CFR20 DAC 10CFR835 DAC 10CFR20 ALIs uCi uCi/mL uCi/mL Bq/M Ingestion Inhalation Lu-176m 9E-06 3E-06 1E+5 8E+3 2E+4 Lu-176 2E-09 3E-09 1E+2 7E+2 Lu-177m 3E-08 4E-08 1E+3 7E+2 Lu-177 9E-07 5E-07 1E+4 2E+3 2E+3 Lu-178m 7E-05 4E-06 1E+5 5E+4 2E+5 Lu-178 5E-05 8E-06...
Page 106 10CFR20 DAC 10CFR835 DAC 10CFR20 ALIs uCi uCi/mL uCi/mL Bq/M Ingestion Inhalation Ta-182m 2E-04 6E-06 2E+5 2E+5 4E+5 Ta-182 6E-08 7E-08 2E+3 8E+2 1E+2 Ta-183 4E-07 2E-07 1E+4 9E+2 1E+3 Ta-184 2E-06 8E-07 3E+4 2E+3 5E+3 Ta-185 3E-05 5E-06 1E+5 3E+4 6E+4 Ta-186...
Page 107 10CFR20 DAC 10CFR835 DAC 10CFR20 ALIs uCi uCi/mL uCi/mL Bq/M Ingestion Inhalation Os-185 2E-07 4E-07 1E+4 2E+3 5E+2 Os-189m 7E-05 7E-05 2E+6 8E+4 2E+5 Os-191m 7E-06 4E-06 1E+5 1E+4 2E+4 Os-191 6E-07 3E-07 1E+4 2E+3 1E+3 Os-193 1E-06 8E-07 3E+4 2E+3 3E+3 Os-194...
Page 108 10CFR20 DAC 10CFR835 DAC 10CFR20 ALIs uCi uCi/mL uCi/mL Bq/M Ingestion Inhalation Pt-193 1E-05 2E-05 7E+5 4E+4 2E+4 Pt-195m 2E-06 1E-06 5E+4 2E+3 4E+3 Pt-197m 2E-05 7E-06 2E+5 2E+4 4E+4 Pt-197 4E-06 3E-06 1E+5 3E+3 1E+4 Pt-199 6E-05 1E-05 4E+5 5E+4 1E+5 Pt-200...
Page 109 10CFR20 DAC 10CFR835 DAC 10CFR20 ALIs uCi uCi/mL uCi/mL Bq/M Ingestion Inhalation Hg-197m 4E-06 1E-06 5E+4 4E+3 9E+3 Hg-197m 2E-06 8E-07 3E+4 3E+3 5E+3 Hg-197m 2E-06 9E-08 3E+3 5E+3 Hg-197 6E-06 4E-06 1E+5 7E+3 1E+4 Hg-197 4E-06 2E-06 7E+4 6E+3 9E+3 Hg-197 4E-06...
Page 110 10CFR20 DAC 10CFR835 DAC 10CFR20 ALIs uCi uCi/mL uCi/mL Bq/M Ingestion Inhalation Pb-203 4E-06 2E-06 7E+4 5E+3 9E+3 Pb-205 6E-07 9E-07 3E+4 4E+3 1E+3 Pb-209 2E-05 9E-06 3E+5 2E+4 6E+4 Pb-210 1E-10 1E-10 Pb-211 3E-07 4E-08 1E+3 1E+4 6E+2 Pb-212 2E-08 5E-09 2E+2...
Page 111 10CFR20 DAC 10CFR835 DAC 10CFR20 ALIs uCi uCi/mL uCi/mL Bq/M Ingestion Inhalation Rn-222 3E-08 1E+2 Fr-222 2E-07 1E-08 3E+2 2E+3 5E+2 Fr-223 3E-07 4E-07 1E+4 6E+2 8E+2 Ra-223 3E-10 9E-11 Ra-224 7E-10 2E-10 Ra-225 3E-10 1E-10 Ra-226 3E-10 2E-10 Ra-227 6E-06 8E-07 3E+4...
Page 112 10CFR20 DAC 10CFR835 DAC 10CFR20 ALIs uCi uCi/mL uCi/mL Bq/M Ingestion Inhalation U-231 2E-06 1E-06 4E+4 4E+3 5E+3 U-232 3E-12 2E-11 8E-3 U-233 2E-11 7E-11 4E-2 U-234 2E-11 7E-11 4E-2 U-235 2E-11 8E-11 4E-2 U-236 2E-11 7E-11 4E-2 U-237 6E-07 3E-07 1E+4 2E+3...
Page 113 10CFR20 DAC 10CFR835 DAC 10CFR20 ALIs uCi uCi/mL uCi/mL Bq/M Ingestion Inhalation Pu-243 2E-05 5E-06 1E+5 2E+4 4E+4 Pu-244 3E-12 5E-12 7E-3 Pu-245 2E-06 8E-07 3E+4 2E+3 4E+3 Pu-246 1E-07 8E-08 3E+3 4E+2 3E+2 Am-237 1E-04 8E-06 3E+5 8E+4 3E+5 Am-238 1E-06 2E-06...
Page 114 10CFR20 DAC 10CFR835 DAC 10CFR20 ALIs uCi uCi/mL uCi/mL Bq/M Ingestion Inhalation Bk-246 1E-06 8E-07 3E+4 3E+3 3E+3 Bk-247 2E-12 3E-12 4E-3 Bk-249 7E-10 1E-09 2E+2 Bk-250 1E-07 2E-07 9E+3 9E+3 3E+2 Cf-244 2E-07 1E-08 5E+2 3E+4 6E+2 Cf-246 4E-09 1E-09 4E+2 Cf-248...
Page 115 External Exposure in a Cloud of Airborne Material 10CFR835 10CFR20 uCi/m L Bq/M uCi/m L Ar-37 4E+10 Ar-39 4E-04 1E+07 4E-04 Ar-41 1E-06 3E+04 3E-06 Kr-74 1E-06 4E+04 3E-06 Kr-76 3E-06 1E+05 9E-06 Kr-77 1E-06 5E+04 4E-06 Kr-79 5E-06 2E+05 2E-05 Kr-81 2E-04...
Page 116 STCs = Special Tritium Compounds 1 = Water (HTO) form 21 = Methyl 2 = Elemental (HT form) 22 = 12 h half-life 3 = water and elemental 23 = 34 yr half-life 4 = Insoluble 24 = 24 h half-life 5 = Soluble 25 = 5 h half-life 6 = Vapor form...
Page 117: Airborne Activity General Dispersion Model
Airborne Activity General Dispersion Model Assume a 1 uCi (37 kBq) release of respirable Pu inside a large room measuring 12 x 12 x 3 meters with a ventilation turnover rate of 7 volumes per hour. The General Dispersion Model uses this 2ð formula for volume.
Page 118: Lung Deposition From Icrp 30
Ventilation Rates Ventilation rates of work areas for health physics and industrial hygiene requirements is typically 6 to 7 volume turnovers per hour. Calculate the ventilation rate in CFM to ventilate a room at 7 volume turnovers per hour given room dimensions of 30 feet by 30 feet by 10 feet.
Page 119: Air Monitoring
AIR MONITORING Concentration Concentration is activity per volume of air and may be stated as dpm / cubic meter, ìCi / ml, or Bq / cubic meter. DAC (Derived Air Concentration) is another way to express airborne radioactivity concentrations as relative hazards. Sample CPM / Eff (CPM / DPM) 1 uCi 2.22 E6 DPM...
Page 120: Air Flow Meter Corrections
AIR FLOW METER CORRECTIONS Mass Flow Meters Q (P /P x T /T ) Q (P /P x T /T ) where; Q is the STP flow rate Q is the ambient flow rate P is STP pressure P is the ambient pressure T is STP temperature T is the ambient temperature Rotameter Corrections...
Page 121: Types Of Air Samples
I TYPES OF AIR SAMPLES Particulates Air sampling for particulates includes both solid and liquid aerosols. The particulates may be radioactive, toxic, nuisance, or a combination of these characteristics. It is important to know the particle size distribution of the aerosols.
Page 122: Air Sample Collection & Analysis Methods
II AIR SAMPLE COLLECTION & ANALYSIS METHODS Passive and Diffusion Flow Through Grab Filtration Absorption and Adsorption Bubblers Impactors Particle Separators Affect of Sample Inlets on Collection...
Page 123 Passive and Diffusion Passive and diffusion sampling of air requires the substance being sampled to come into contact (or near contact) with the container, collection media, or detection assembly. Examples of this sampling method are; smoke, CO, and CO monitors where the substance in the air (in this case the smoke or CO or CO ) migrate throughout the space where the detectors are located and when the substance enter into the active volume of the detector an alarm is generated.
Page 124 Flow Through Flow through chambers generally are combined with some detection method. Applications include sampling for radioactive substances, both gas and particulate, and sampling for toxic substances. When sampling for radioactive substances the typical flow through chamber is a version of the air ionization chamber used for the detection of gamma detection.
Page 125 Another technique used is to fill the sampling container with water and when the inlet and outlet valves are opened the water flowing out draws the air to be sampled into the container. Sampling containers can be evacuated using a vacuum pump before sampling the air and when the sample needs to be collected the technician simply opens the inlet valve on the sampling container.
Page 126: Filter Media
Filter Media Characteristics for Alpha CAMs Filter Type Pore Size Filter ÄP FW HM keV Millipore Fluoropore 5 um 0.5"Hg Fluoropore 3 um 0.8"Hg SMWP 5 um 2.0"Hg SSWP 3 um 3.1"Hg AW19 1.2 um 3.8"Hg Durapore 5 um 4.3"Hg AP40 0.7 um 2.6"Hg...
Page 127 Absorption and Adsorption Absorption and adsorption are both used in air sampling and are sometimes hard to distinguish from each other. Absorption is a process in which atoms, molecules, or ions enter some bulk phase - a gas, liquid, or solid material. Adsorption is a process in which a gas or liquid aerosol accumulates on the surface of a solid or liquid, forming a film of molecules or atoms.
Page 128 Bubblers Bubblers consist of an air pump and a liquid container which has an inlet tube going to near the bottom of the bubbler. The air pump pulls air to be sampled into the inlet tube and the air goes through the tube to the bottom of the liquid container where the air “bubbles”...
Page 129 The air stream is then directed to a catalyst and heater section where the elemental tritium is converted into tritium oxide. From there the tritium oxide (which was elemental tritium just before) is drawn through another set of collection vials identical to the first set. The first set of vials contains the tritium oxide from the original sample while the second set of vials contains the elemental tritium which was converted to the oxide form.
Page 130 Particle Separators Cyclone separators use a method similar to impactors in that the larger particles cannot follow the main air stream at some velocities. The large particles then drop out the bottom of the cyclone separator while the air stream with much smaller particles go out the top of the cyclone separator.
Page 131: Air Sample Pumps
III AIR SAMPLE PUMPS INTRODUCTION Equipment used to generate vacuum is similar to air compressors. It's even possible to generate compressed air or vacuum with the same machine, depending on how it is installed. Vacuum pumps generally can be considered as compressors in which the discharge rather than the intake is at atmospheric pressure.
Page 132 Positive Displacement Vacuum Pumps Vacuum pumps fall into the same categories as air compressors do. Tthey are either positive displacement or non-positive displacement machines. A positive displacement pump draws a relatively constant volume of air despite variations in the vacuum levels. The principle types of positive displacement vacuum pumps are the piston, diaphragm, rocking piston, rotary vane, lobed rotor, and rotary screw designs.
Page 133 Rotary Vane Pumps -Most rotary vane pumps have lower vacuum ratings than can be obtained with the piston design: only 20 to 28"Hg maximum. However, some two stage oil- lubricated designs have vacuum capabilities up to 29.5"Hg. The rotary vane design offers significant advantages: compactness;...
Page 134 Evaluating Vacuum Pump Performance The primary performance criteria cover three characteristics: • Vacuum level that can be produced. • Rate of air removal. • Power required. Somewhat less critical are temperature effects and certain other characteristics. In general, the best pump for a specific job is the one having the greatest pumping capacity at the required vacuum level and operating within an acceptable horsepower range.
Page 135 Operating where atmospheric pressure is lower will reduce the vacuum the pump can produce. An adjusted vacuum rating for such locations can be determined by multiplying actual atmospheric pressure by the ratio of the nominal vacuum rating to standard atmospheric pressure: Adjusted Vacuum Rating = Actual Atomospheric Press x Nominal Vacuum Rating...
Page 136 Since these differences exist, pump selection should be based on actual free air capacity rather than on displacement. In short, the air removal rate is a measure of vacuum pump capacity and the capacity of standard machines must be determined from the manufacturers' tables or curves showing cfm of free air delivered at rated speed for vacuum levels ranging from 0 “Hg (open capacity) to the maximum vacuum rating.
Page 137 Summary of Vacuum Pump Selection Factors These basic questions should be answered before deciding which vacuum pump is best suited for a particular application: • What degree of vacuum is required? • What flow capacity (cfm) is required? • What horsepower and speed requirements are needed to meet vacuum level and capacity values? •...
Page 138: Gas Law Units
Nomenclature V = volume of expanded air, cu ft V = volume of free air, cu ft P = pressure (psi) Pa = absolute pressure (psia) P1 = inlet (or original) absolute pressure P2 = discharge (or final) absolute pressure V1 = inlet (or original) volume V2 = discharge (or final) volume T1 = inlet (or original) absolute temperature...
Page 139 Temperatures Used in Gas Laws Absolute Temperature is the temperature above absolute zero, the point where all thermal activity ceases. Such a perfect gas would exert no pressure if kept at a constant volume. In SI units, absolute zero is - 273 C, and absolute temperatures are given in degrees Kelvin (K).
Page 140 Combined Gas Law P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2 General Gas Law or Equation of State of an Ideal Gas mR= PV/T The above basic form includes the effect of mass (in pounds). The right-hand portion of the equation is the same as the Combined Gas Law.
Page 141 Power - The units of power are horsepower (hp) and watts (w) or kilowatts (kw). One U.S. horsepower equals 0.746 kw and 1.014 metric horsepower. Absolute Pressure - In pressure or vacuum systems, absolute pressure is the pressure above a perfect vacuum condition (zero pressure).
Page 142 Differential Pressure - Difference in pressure between two points in a system or component. Displacement - The total volume swept by the repetitive motion of the pumping element. Displacement per revolution is determined by size of the pumping chamber(s). Displacement per minute also depends on compressor speed.
Page 143 Non-positive Displacement - (Of a compressor or vacuum pump). One that uses kinetic energy to create pressure gradients (slopes) for moving air. This applies to Regenerative, Axial flow, and Centrifugal pumps. Open Capacity - The volume of air exhausted per minute when there is no vacuum or pressure load on the pump, expressed in cfm.
Page 144 Vacuum Receiver Tank - Container in which gas is stored under vacuum as a source of pneumatic fluid power. Accommodates sudden or unusually high system demands. Prevents frequent on/off cycling of an air compressor or vacuum pump and absorbs pulsations. Regulator - Device to control flow of gases, thus controlling the magnitude of the force and torque produced by the actuator.
Page 145: Air Sample Pump Power Sources
AIR SAMPLE PUMP POWER SOURCES AC Powerline Battery Generator Solar Power Wind Power...
Page 146 AC Powerline This section applies to those portable or temporary AC powerline operated vacuum pumps. Permanently installed systems must conform to building codes. Use the following table and equations as guidance in determining electrical wiring requirements for your system. AWG gauge Ohms per 100 feet of wire Maximum Amps 0.016...
Page 147 Use Ohm’s Law to determine if your powerline is causing an unacceptable voltage drop on your system. V = VoIts V = I x R l = Amps I = V / R R = Ohms R = V / I Example: If you use a 400 foot length of 16 gauge powerline to operate a vacuum pump that uses 3.7 amps calculate the voltage loss using this equation;...
Page 148 Battery Systems When using batteries to power vacuum pumps you must consider the continuous run time you need to get from your battery system. Use the following table and equation to determine your battery requirements after you establish how many watt-hours of power you need from the system.
Page 149 Generators Generators can be an effective way of powering portable or temporary air sampling equipment. Use the following table and equation to determine your generator capacity requirements and time between refueling of your generator fuel tank. Example: You have a vacuum pump that uses 750 watts per hour.
Page 150 Solar Power Solar power panels can be an effective way to power a remote air monitoring system. If you want to operate the system continuously you need to add a battery system. Use previous guidance from the section on battery systems to determine the required size of the battery system.
Page 151 How many square feet of solar panel do you need? Example: From our previous example you need a minimum of 18,000 watt-hours per day from your solar panels. With 6 hours per day of available sunlight you need to collect 3,000 watts per hour.
Page 152 Wind Power Wind power systems are an attractive option as a way to power a remote air monitoring system. If you want to operate the system when there is not enough wind you need to add a battery system. Use previous guidance from the section on battery systems and solar panels to determine the required size of the battery system.
Page 153: Air Pollution Safe Limits
AIR POLLUTION SAFE LIMITS (mg / m ) Pollutant Limit Pollutant Limit Benzene ** Iron oxide (fume) Bromine 0.66 Isopropyl alcohol Cadmium * 0.002 Lead (dust & fume) 9,000 Manganese Carbon disulfide Mercury 0.01 Methanol Carbon tetrachloride *** 31 Nitric oxide Chlorine Chloroform * Selenium...
Page 154: Elevation Vs Air Pressure
ELEVATION VS AIR PRESSURE Barometric Boiling Point Speed of Elevation Pressure of Water Sound mm Hg kPa -500 -152 103.2 100.5 212.9 340.9 763 101.3 212.0 340.3 761 99.5 99.5 211.1 339.7 760 1,000 97.6 99.0 210.2 339.1 759 1,500 96.0 98.4 209.2...
Page 155: Elevations Of Major Airports And Facilities
ELEVATIONS OF MAJOR AIRPORTS AND FACILITIES Feet Feet AK Anchorage Bloomington AK Fairbanks Moline AL Birmingham Bloomington AL Dothan Evansville AL Huntsville Wichita 1,332 AR Little Rock Lexington AR Fort Smith Paducah AZ Flagstaff 7,011 New Orleans AZ Phoenix 1,133 Shreveport AZ Tucson 2,641...
Page 156 NE Omaha Cedar City 5,623 NH Lebanon Saint George 2,936 NH Manchester Salt Lake City 4,227 NJ Atlantic City Norfolk NJ Trenton Roanoake 1,176 NM Albuquerque 5,352 Burlington NM Carlsbad 3,293 Bellingham NM Los Alamos 7,200 Pullman 2,551 NM White Sands 4,197 Richland NV Ely...
Page 157: International Airport Elevations
INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT ELEVATIONS (FEET) Addis-Ababa, Ethiopia 7,625 Montreal, Canada Algiers, Algeria Moscow, Russia Amsterdam, Netherlands -13 Nairobi, Kenya 5,327 Athens, Greece New Delhi, India Bagdad, Iraq Osaka, Japan Beijing, China Panama Cty, Panama 135 Berlin, Germany Paris, France Bogota, Columbia 8,355 Perth, Australia Bombay, India Port Moresby,...
Page 158: Composition Of Air
COMPOSITION OF AIR Density of Symbol % Volume Gases g / l 100.00 1.2928 Nitrogen 78.084 1.2506 Oxygen 20.947 1.4290 Argon 0.934 1.7840 Carbon Dioxide 0.033 1.9770 Neon 18.2 PPM 0.9002 Helium 5.2 PPM 0.1785 Methane 2.0 PPM Krypton 1.1 PPM Sulfur Dioxide 1.0 PPM 2.927...
Page 159: Radon Facts
RADON FACTS 1 working level 3 DAC Rn (including progeny) á 1.3E5 MeV / liter of air energy 100 pCi / liter (1E-7 uCi / mL) 20.8 uJoules / M 1 working level-month = 1 pCi / L in air thru evaporation EPA ACTION LEVELS FOR RADON GAS IN HOMES Concentration (pCi / L) Sampling Frequency...
Page 160: Epa Radon Risk Tables
EPA Radon Risk Tables - If You Smoke Radon If 1,000 people were Level exposed to this level over a lifetime* The risk compares to** 20 pCi / L 260 could get 250 times risk of lung cancer drowning 10 pCi / L 150 could get 200 times risk of dying lung cancer...
Page 161 SI and US “Traditional” Units Activity Dose Equivalent 1 TBq 27 Ci 1 Sv = 100 rem 1 GBq 27 mCi 1 mSv = 100 mrem 1 Mbq 27 ìCi 1 mSv = 0.10 rem 1 kBq 27 nCi 1 ìSv = 100 ìrem 1 Bq 27 pCi...
Page 162: Abbreviations
ABBREVIATIONS ampere A, or amp angstrom unit A, or atmosphere atomic weight at. wt. becquerel cubic foot ft , or cu ft cubic feet per minute ft /min, or cfm cubic inch in , or cu. in. cubic meter m , or cu m curie day, or d degree...
Page 163: Conversions Of Units
CONVERSION OF UNITS Length 1 angstrom ( ) = 1E-8 cm 1 cm = 1E8 1 inch = 2.54 cm 1 cm = 0.3937 in 1 meter = 3.2808 feet 1 foot = 0.3048 m 1 kilometer = 0.6214 miles 1 mile = 1.609 km 1 mile = 5,280 feet...
Page 164 Mass 1 gram = 0.03527 ounces 1 ounce = 28.35 g 1 kilogram = 2.2046 pounds 1 lbs = 0.4536 kg 1 pound = 16 ounces 1 ounce = 0.0625 lb 1 pound = 453.59 grams 1 gram = 2.2046E-3 lb Density 1 gram / cm = 62.428 lbs / ft...
Page 165 Radiological 1 rad 100 ergs / g 1 erg / g 0.01 rad 1 rad 6.242E13 eV / g 1 eV / g 1.602E-13 roentgen 1 roentgen 87.7 ergs / g of air 1 erg / g of air 0.0114 roentgen 1 roentgen 1.61E12 ion pairs/g of air 1 ion pair / g of air...
Page 166 Radiological 1 BTU 1.28E-8 g U fissioned U fissioned 7.81E7 BTU 1 BTU 3.29E13 fissions 1 fission 3.04E-14 BTU U fissioned 1 megawatt-days 1 MW-days U fissioned U fissioned 1.8E-2 kilotons TNT 1 kilotons TNT 55.6 g U fissioned 1 fission 8.9058E-18 kW-hours 1 kW-hrs 1.123E17 fissions...
Page 167 Power 1 joule/sec = 1E7 ergs/sec 1 erg/sec 1E-7 joule/sec 1 watt = 1E7 ergs/sec 1 erg/sec 1E-7 watt 1 watt = 1 joule/sec 1 joule/sec = 1 watt 1 watt = 0.001341 hp 1 hp 745.7 watts 1 BTU/min = 0.01757 kW 1 kW 56.9 BTU/min...
Page 168: Constants
CONSTANTS Avogadro's number (N ) 6.02252E23 electron charge (e) 4.80298E-10 esu electron rest mass (m ) 9.1091 E-28 g acceleration of gravity (g) 32.1725 ft / sec @ sea level & 45 latitude 980.621 cm / sec Planck's constant (h) 6.625E-27 erg-sec velocity of light (c) 2.9979E10 cm / sec...
Page 169: Surface Area And Volume Calculations
SURFACE AREA AND VOLUME CALCULATIONS Triangle A (area) ½ x b x h; where b is the base and h is the height of the triangle Rectangle A (area) a x b; where a and b are the lengths of the sides Rectangular Box V (volume) = w x l x h;...
Page 170: Electromagnetic Spectrum
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM Wavelength Frequency Energy Radiation Meters Type 1E-8 3E20 1.24E9 Cosmic ____________ 1E-14 3E16 1.24E5 X-Ray _________ gamma 1E-10 3E12 1.24E1 _________ _________ 1E-6 1.24E-3 ______ visible _________ 1E-2 1.24E-7 _____________ microwave radar 1.24E-11 shortwave radio 3E-4 1.24E-15 ë (meters wavelength) = 300 / F = 1.24E-9 / keV F (frequency MHz) = 300 / ë...
Page 171: Rules Of Thumb For Alpha Particles
RULES OF THUMB FOR ALPHA PARTICLES 1. An alpha particle of at least 7.5 MeV energy is needed to penetrate the nominal protective layer of the skin (7 mg / cm or 0.07 mm). 2. The alpha emissions and energies of the predominant particles from 1 ìg of several common materials are: DPM per ìg Alpha Energy (MeV)
Page 172 5. Air-proportional alpha detectors have a flatter energy vs efficiency response than sealed gas-proportional, alpha scintillator, alpha/beta scintillator, or GM detectors. This is due to several factors. One factor is the typically thinner entrance windows on air-proportional alpha detectors compared to beta detectors and alpha and beta scintillator detectors whereby more of the initial alpha particle energy enters the active volume of the air-proportional compared to other detectors.
Page 173: Rules Of Thumb For Beta Particles
RULES OF THUMB FOR BETA PARTICLES 1. Beta particles of at least 70 keV energy are required to penetrate the nominal protective layer of the skin. 2. The average energy of a beta-ray spectrum is approximately one-third the maximum energy. 3.
Page 174 7. The bremsstrahlung from a 1 Ci P aqueous solution in a glass bottle is ~ 3 mrad/h (30 ìGy/h) at 1 m. Half-value thickness vs beta energy Isotope â max energy (KeV) Half-Value Thickness 7.5 mg / cm 15 mg / cm Sr/Y 546 / 2270 150 mg / cm...
Page 175: Rules Of Thumb For Gamma Radiation
RULES OF THUMB FOR GAMMA RADIATION 1. The range of gamma rays (any photon) for energies from eV to 10 MeV in air is from a few mm to 100 meters. The range of those photons in water is from a few mm to several cm. 2.
Page 176 RULES OF THUMB FOR NEUTRONS 1. The number of neutrons per square centimeter per second at distance R from a small source emitting Q neutrons per second without shielding is given by; n / cm -sec = Q / 4 R = 0.08Q / R 2.
Page 177 APPROXIMATE NEUTRON ENERGIES cold neutrons 0 - 0.025 eV thermal 0.025 eV epithermal 0.025 - 0.4 eV cadmium 0.4 - 0.6 eV epicadmium 0.6 - 1 eV slow 1 eV - 10 eV resonance 10 eV - 300 eV intermediate 300 eV - 1 MeV fast 1 MeV - 20 MeV...
Page 178: Spontaneous Fission
Spontaneous Fission Neutron and Gamma Yields mrem / hr SF (years) per Ci @ 30 cm half-life n/s/Ci n/s/GBq neutron gamma 6.7E5 7.14E3 1.92E2 2.64E9 7.14E7 2.93E4 1.25E2 3.38 <0.1 <0.1 1.38E7 1.11E5 3.0E3 7.2E6 5.28E3 1.43E2 <0.1 2E14 0.18 4.86E-3 <0.1 <0.1...
Page 179 Energy & Yield of neutrons from the alpha, n reaction neutron ç energy mrem/hr per Ci n/s/GBq n/s/Ci @ 30 cm Cf O 8.73E6 3.23E8 3,600 Cm Be 1.0E5 3.7E6 41.1 Cm O 1.0E5 3.7E6 41.1 Cm Be 1.12E5 4.1E6 45.5 Cm O 1.12E5...
Page 180 Energy & Yield of neutrons from the alpha, n reaction neutron ç energy mrem/hr per Ci n/s/GBq n/s/Ci @ 30 cm Ac Be av 5 7.02E5 2.6E7 Ra Be av 4.5 5.02E5 1.9E7 Ra B 8.0E4 3.0E5 Po Be 7.1E4 2.6E6 28.9 Po Li...
Page 181 Isotopic Mix of WG Pu % Weight 0.02 93.16 6.43 0.33 0.06 % Activity 0.82 13.87 3.49 81.82 0.0006 Curies for a 1 kilo-gram mixture of WG Pu 3.42 57.9 14.6 339.9 2.36E-3 exposure rates in rem/hr at 30 cm ã...
Page 182 WG Pu 15 years after fabrication % Wt 0.018 0.002 93.16 6.43 0.16 0.06 0.17 % Act 1.22 2.8E-4 23.43 5.86 67.24 6.0E-4 2.25 Curies for a 1 kilo-gram mixture of 15 years-old WG Pu 3.08 1.2E-4 57.85 14.6 164.8 2.4E-3 5.83 exposure rates in rem/hr at 30 cm ã...
Page 183: Neutron Exposure Rate From The Oxide Form Of Radionuclides
Neutron exposure rate from the oxide form of radionuclides mrem/hr per Pu Ci at 30 cm 2E-2 2.6E-5 3.6E-4 8.7E-8 0.1 Neutron and gamma exposure rates from Spontaneous Fission for Pu and U Power Source Radionuclides Spontaneous Fission ã mrem /hr mrem /hr per Primary per Ci...
Page 184 Isotopic Mix of Natural U 234m % Weight 99.27 - - - - - - 0.72 - - - 0.0057 % Activity 24.39 24.39 24.39 1.16 1.16 24.51 Curies for a 1 kilo-gram mixture of natural uranium 3.3E-4 3.3E-4 3.3E-4 1.6E-5 1.6E-5 3.5E-4 gamma exposure rates in rem/hr at 30 cm 1.3E-7 1.1E-5 1.7E-5 1.2E-5...
Page 185 Isotopic Mix of 20% Enriched U 234m % Weight 79.68 - - - - - - 20.0 - - - 0.32 % Activity 1.25 1.25 1.25 2.00 2.00 92.25 Curies for a 1 kilo-gram mixture of 20% enriched uranium 2.7E-4 2.7E-4 2.7E-4 4.3E-4 4.3E-4 2.0E-2 gamma exposure rates in rem/hr at 30 cm 1.1E-7 9.6E-6 1.4E-5 3.2E-4...
Page 186: Miscellaneous Rules Of Thumb
MISCELLANEOUS RULES OF THUMB 1. One watt of power in a reactor requires 3.1E10 fissions per second. In a reactor operating for more than 4 days, the total fission products are about 3 Ci / watt at 1.5 min after shutdown.
Page 187 Characteristic X-Rays (KeV) of the Elements These characteristic x-rays originate in the shell of the atom and can be used to identify specific elements but not a specific isotope. These characteristic x-rays are emitted from the shell of the atom after sufficient energy in the form of thermal heat, laser, micro- waves, or other type of energy is directed into the atom shell.
Page 188 109.10 123.24 14.96 19.39 6.93 7.65 0.78 0.79 5.41 5.43 0.57 0.58 30.97 34.98 4.29 4.62 8.05 8.90 0.93 0.95 45.99 52.18 6.50 7.25 49.10 55.69 6.95 7.81 117.65 132.78 16.02 21.17 41.53 47.03 5.85 6.46 0.677 6.40 7.06 0.70 0.72 120.60 136.08...
Page 189 54.06 61.28 7.65 8.71 1.25 1.30 5.90 6.49 0.64 0.65 17.48 19.61 2.29 2.40 0.392 1.04 1.07 16.61 18.62 2.17 2.26 37.36 42.27 5.23 5.72 0.851 7.48 8.26 0.85 0.87 101.00 114.18 13.95 17.74 0.526 62.99 71.40 8.91 10.36 2.02 2.14 95.85 108.41...
Page 190 20.21 22.72 2.70 2.83 83.80 94.88 11.72 14.32 19.28 21.66 2.56 2.68 2.31 2.46 26.36 29.72 3.61 3.84 4.09 4.46 0.40 11.22 12.50 1.38 1.42 1.74 1.83 40.12 45.40 5.64 6.21 25.27 28.48 3.44 3.66 14.16 15.83 1.81 1.87 57.52 65.21 8.15 9.34...
Page 191: Counting Statistics
COUNTING STATISTICS Minimum Detectable Activity k + 2k R x t x (1+t /t ) (MDA) MDA = x Eff Minimum Detectable Count Rate = L = MDCR k + 2k R x t x (1+t /t ) k x R x t + R x t = 1.645 (for 95% Confidence Level) = sample count time...
Page 192 MDA when background and sample count 3 + 4.65 R times are one minute and k is 1.645. MDA when background count time is ten minutes and sample count time is one 3 + 3.45 R minute and k is 1.645. POISSON STATISTICS For Poisson distributions the following logic applies.
Page 193: Interference Due To Environmental Radon
INTERFERENCE DUE TO ENVIRONMENTAL RADON If you are sampling for radon particulate progeny and/or thoron particulate progeny or if those might interfere with your sampling for other airborne radioactive material you will need to take some repetitive measurements to quantify the radioactivity.
Page 194 INTERFERENCE DUE TO ENVIRONMENTAL RADON Time Mostly Radon Mostly Thoron Equal Mixture Minutes % Remaining % Remaining % Remaining 96.78% 73.4% 6.25% 87.74% 47.0% 0.49% 77.0% 38.7% 0.098% 72.1% 36.1% Assume your initial measurement right after removing the sample filter indicates a count rate of 10,000 cpm. If you have ONLY radon the count rate will decrease by ½...
Page 195: Units And Terminology
UNITS AND TERMINOLOGY “Special Units” SI Units Exposure Roentgen Coulombs / kg Dose rad (0.01 Gy) Gray (100 rad) Dose Equiv rem (0.01 Sv) Sievert (100 rem) Activity Curie (2.22 E12 dpm) Becquerel (1dps) 1 Roentgen = 2.58 E-4 coulomb / kg in air = 1 esu / cm in air = 87.7 ergs / gm in air = 98 ergs / gm in soft tissue...
Page 196: Background Radiation
PUBLIC RADIATION DOSES Average per capita US Dose 200 mrem (2 mSv) / yr Living in Los Alamos (7000' elev) 327 mrem (3.27 mSv)/yr Flying from NY to LA 2.5 mrem (25 ìSv) / trip Chest x-ray 10 mrem (0.1mSv)/exam Full mouth dental x-ray 9 mrem (90 ìSv) / exam The external dose rate for cosmic rays doubles for each mile...
Page 197: Comparative Risk Of Radiation Exposure
COMPARATIVE RISKS OF RADIATION EXPOSURE Estimated Days of Life Lost Smoking 1 pack of cigarettes / day 2,370 20% overweight Average US alcohol consumption Home accidents Occupational exposure • 5.0 rem (50 mSv) / year • 0.5 rem (5 mSv) / year OCCUPATIONAL RISKS Estimated Days Occupation...
Page 198: Relative Risk
Relative Risk Your overall risk of dying is 1 in 1 Heart disease 1 in 5 Cancer 1 in 7 Stroke 1 in 24 Motor vehicle accident 1 in 84 Suicide 1 in 119 Falling 1 in 218 Firearm assault 1 in 314 Pedestrian accident 1 in 626...
Page 199 Author’s notes Over my career in health physics starting with a US Army CBR unit at Dugway Proving Grounds in 1965 I have needed to quickly find that elusive data point that I just couldn’t remember, even though I knew the information was in one of my several hundred reference books.
Page 200: Neutron Shielding
Radiation Shielding Products Polyethylene-Based Neutron Shielding 5% Borated Polyethylene Self-Extinguishing Borated Polyethylene 30% Borated Polyethylene Pure Polyethylene 7.5% Lithium Polyethylene Lead-Free Gamma Shielding Poly-Biz (rigid panels and bricks) Flexi-Biz (flexible panels and sheets) Clays and Putties Neutron Putty Gamma Putty Castable and Pre-Cast Neutron Shielding High-Temperature Boron-Silicone PolyKast Dry Mix...

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